Messianic/Eschatological Expectations of the Intertestamental Period and 1st Century

The Messianic/eschatological expectations in the intertestamental period and 1st century were apparently quite complex. For instance, in 1QS 9.11, The Manual of Disciple or the Community Rule, the following passing comment is recorded about their eschatological expectation that surrounded the Messiah,

The property of the 'specially holy men' - that is, of 'the men that walk 'blamelessly' - is not to be put into a common pool with that of men who may still be addicted to deceit and may not yet have achieved that purity of conduct which leads them to keep apart from perversity and to walk in integrity.Until the coming of the prophet and of both the priestly and the lay Messiah, these men are not to depart from the clear intent of the Law to walk in any way in the stubbornness of their own hearts. They shall judge by the original laws in which the members of the community were schooled from the beginning. [Underlining added]1

Additionally, in 4 Ezra 2:18, Isaiah and Jeremiah are promised as returning.

Then there was the expectation of Elijah's return. J. Louis Martyn summarised the Jewish expectation surrounding Elijah (cited by Culpepper) as,

In the traditions about his eschatological coming, Elijah is expected to do many things, such as make peace, whether within families or in the whole world; reassemble the members of the people who have been taken away; determine which are the genuine Israelites, thus, re-establishing the purity of corpus Israel; restore to Israel the manna, the sprinkling water, and the anointing oil; raise the dead, thus vanquishing death as he once vanquished the prophets of Baal.2 

In regard to the Messiah, there were various expectations, 

1. A king bringing freedom to his people (Pss. Sol. 17:22, 24, 32)

2. Two Messiahs: Priestly and Royal (As indicated in the first quote above)3 

In regard to the complex Messianic expectations (eg. political association), it isn't surprising that Jesus rejected association with the term (eg. Mark 8:30). 


In conclusion, the Messianic/eschatological situation in Israel's thinking was made up of a complex of ideas. 

1. Manual of Discipline, n.d. http://www.essene.com/History&Essenes/md.htm.
2. Culpepper, R. Alan. Mark. Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 2007, p. 268.
3. Culpepper, R. Alan. Mark. Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 2007, pp. 269-270.

The Many Genres of History in the ~First Century

Awhile back, I came across a passage in Theon's Exercises in which he lists the different sub-genres of historical writing. Here are the sub-genres that he lists:

1. Genealogical history
2. Political history
3. Mythical history
4. Biographical 
5. General history
6. Descriptions of constitutions
7. Advanced histories which combine features of the above genre1

This list is interesting as it shows the diversity of historical genres in the ~first century. 

1. Kennedy, George, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), p. 68.

Confirming our definition of παῖς (pais)

I came across the following discussion about παῖς by Theon. The surrounding context is Theon's advice for clarity in writing. One of the things to avoid is the use of homonyms. On this topic, he penned,

A homonym is a single word pronounced in the same way but with different significations, like pais ("boy"); for it means a son and a young child and a slave.1

There we have it. These meanings are the same as those found in our current Greek lexicons. While this is not groundbreaking, I, nonetheless, find such discoveries interesting.
1. Kennedy, George, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), p. 31.

Narrative Analysis is not Anachronistic

I have often wondered if narrative analysis is anachronistic. However, it would appear that ancient authors were consciously constructing narrative using similar categories as we do. For instance, Theon outlines that the elements of narration are:

1. The person/s

 2. "[T]he action done by the person"

3. "[T]he place where the action was done"

4. "[T]he time at which it was done"

5. "[T]he manner of the action"

6. "[T]he cause of these things"1

These match up with our categories. Therefore, it is fair to say that our analytical techniques are not overly anachronistic.

1. Kennedy, George, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), p. 28.

Greco-Roman Historical Genres: More than chronology

In approaching the Gospels, it is apparent that they are more than just chronologies about Jesus and his ministry. Each Gospel is presenting Jesus' story/life with a different purpose. In line with this purpose, the writer brings together individual stories about Jesus to communicate a central message. Each Gospel is coherent in its message and also unique from the other Gospels in its emphasis about Jesus. This observation has been reinforced by both literary and rhetorical criticism.

In line with this observation, I came across something interesting awhile ago in my readings of ancient rhetorical sources. According to Theon, narration and fable were two of the main literary exercises that help one learn how to write a history well.1 The importance of practicing narration is obvious in how it would help a person write history. However, how would writing fable help? This is answered by looking at Theon's discussion on fable. He says, "a fable (mythos) is a fictitious story giving an image of truth...".2 Fable would apparently help a person learn how to write a story, which is important for writing histories. Additionally, a person who practices fable would also learn to write/tell a story with the goal of communicating a central truth. Therefore, for Theon, it would appear that to write a history is more than just chronological narrations and facts about a person. It is to combine together narrations to drive home a central truth about that person, nation, etc.

All in all, the observations that scholars have made about the Gospels line up with Theon's view of what was involved in writing history. As he was writer of the ~first century, this observation has merit in helping inform our view of how ~first century histories were written and read.

1. Kennedy, George, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), p. 4.
2. Ibid. p. 23.

Aural Memory and the Assumption of Structure

On the subject of ~1st century aural memory (ability to remember a speech), I came across an interesting passage in Theon's "Exercises". 

"In listening (akroasis), the most important thing is to give frank and friendly attention to the speaker." Then the student should recall the subject of the writing, identify the main points and the arrangement, finally recall also the better passages. If at first he cannot recall the words or their arrangement, it is still useful for him to try, but not everything at once. Have him write it down at leisure. Begin with the prooemion [introduction], and then, after practicing with that for several days, continue to the narration, then move on to the arguments, two or three at a time. (bolding added)1

There are three points that I find interesting from this quote. (The following point is a minor one) Firstly, I find the systematic advice for listening demonstrative that structure was an expected quality of ~1st century (and prior) writing/speeches. In other words, structure was just as important and fundamental for ancient compositions as it is now. While this is not surprising for many of us, I have heard comments which sometimes put ancient people into a category which almost don't need structure.  

Secondly and most importantly, writing was seen as a helpful memory/training tool for listening skills. In other words, their aural memory was not so refined that it did not need the help of writing. This sort of background is helpful in holding realistic opinions about oral tradition and its associated methods used for memory. We also don't see in this quote a dichotomy, which is easy to create, of oral vs. literary culture; but, rather, we see a blending of the two "cultures". 

Thirdly, I find the quote helpful in realistically understanding 1st century aural memory. Here, Theon talks about taking several days in remembering just the prooemion (introduction) alone. Obviously, this is light on details about the size of the prooemion and the time spent each day doing this. Also, this is instruction for kids. Nonetheless, it reveals that their abilities were not superhuman in the aural department as some make it sound like.  

Lastly, while this information is helpful, care needs to be taken in simply reading this type of information back into the NT because we are reading a Greco-Roman text and not a more Jewish source. Nonetheless, texts like this help us get a better image of the NT world.

   

1. Kennedy, George, Progymnasmata: Greek Textbooks of Prose Composition and Rhetoric (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003), p. 69.

Honorable and Dishonorable Professions

I came across the following material the other day while reading Culpepper's commentary on Mark. It was a quote from the Midrash on the honor/dishonor of different professions. Here is the quote:

Abba Goryom, from Zadyan, said [in the name of Abba Guryah], "A person should not bring up his children to be ass or camel drivers, barbers, mariners, shepherds, or shopkeepers, for these are not honest trades." 12 R. Jehudah says [in the name of Abba Guryah], "Most of the ass drivers are wicked persons, but the greater part of the camel drivers are generally honest; most mariners are pious; the best of physicians is destined for hell, 13 and the best butcher is a suitable companion for Amalek." 14 R. Nahorai saith, "I leave every business, and have my son only taught the Holy Law, for its rewards are partly enjoyed here, but the principal reward is reserved, to those who occupy themselves therein, in the future world. It is not thus with other [worldly] trades, for when a man engaged in them becomes ill, or old, or suffers from other woes, and cannot longer work at them, he must perish of hunger. (Midrash 4.14)1

So from this, we get an understanding of later (than the NT) attitudes toward a number of professions (some of which are mentioned in the NT). Whether these attitudes were around in Jesus' time is questionable. As a side note, care must be taken in reading this material back into the NT as the material post-dates it. Nonetheless, the attitudes are more likely to be reflective of attitudes in Jesus' time than our attitudes (eg. our hierarchy of what is and what is not a dishonorable profession). 


From this data, I derived the following list of dishonorable professions: 

1. Ass/Camel driver
2. Barber
3. Mariner
4. Shepherd  
5. Shopkeeper
6. Physicians (destined for hell/gehenna)
7. Butcher (companion for Amalek)

However, some of these professions were seen as honorable by some and these are:

1. Camel drivers (generally honest)
2. Mariners (most are pious)

In this list of dishonorable professions, being a student of Torah is seen as not just  honorable but the most honorable.  

1. http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/etm/etm148.htm#fr_1140